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Comparative analysis of meditation techniques on well-being and consciousness states: A cross-sectional study
*Corresponding author: Vishal Verma, Department of Management, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University (A Central University), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. k2vishal10@gmail.com
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Received: ,
Accepted: ,
How to cite this article: Kumar A, Chaturvedi RK, Mishra K, Verma V. Comparative analysis of meditation techniques on well-being and consciousness states: A cross-sectional study. J Neurosci Rural Pract. doi: 10.25259/JNRP_225_2025
Abstract
Objectives:
Meditation is a practice that involves focusing the mind to achieve a calm and peaceful state. It helps people calm down, feel less stressed, and learn more about themselves. Meditation is becoming more famous around the world because it is good for mental, emotional, and spiritual health. The study aims to compare the different meditation techniques toward the psychological well-being (PWB), sub-consciousness, and super-consciousness conditions among the practitioners and non-practitioners of meditation.
Materials and Methods:
This study employed a cross-sectional descriptive research design to examine the different types of meditation on PWB (mental health), sub-consciousness, and super-consciousness. A purposive sampling method was used to recruit 405 meditation practitioners, all of whom had been practicing various forms of meditation such as Heartfulness meditation, transcendental meditation (TM), Osho Meditation, Vipassana, Raj Yoga Brahm Kumari, and Heart-Based Dhyan Ram Krishna Mission for at least 6 months. In addition, 14 non-practitioners of meditation were included in the study. Participants ranged in age from 25 to over 60 years. The study used One-Sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov test to check the data normality of PWB, sub and super-consciousness condition constructs. The study employed the non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test. PWB was assessed using the validated 5 items out of 42-item Ryff PWB scale (Ryff, 1989; a = 0. 911 for 5 items, a = 0.86 for 42 items). A researcher-developed scale was used to measure experiences of perceived sub-consciousness and super-consciousness. This scale was validated through expert reviews and reliability testing. The internal consistency of the sub-consciousness and super-consciousness scales was found to be reliable, with Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.925 and 0.933, respectively.
Results:
The results found that there was a significant difference (P = 0.000) in the PWB, sub-consciousness, and super-consciousness condition based on the Heartfulness meditation (Mean rank - 248.15, 241.59, 224.50, respectively), Vipassana (211.14, 212.93, 245.29), heart-based Dhyan (269.50, 253.40, 259.00), Raj Yog Brahm Kumari (219.75, 224.56, 187.00), TM (Maharshi Mahesh Yogi) (132.60, 132.60, 127.00), and Osho meditation (135.08, 168.25, 186.83). It was also found that the non-practitioners of meditation felt the lower levels of PWB (mean rank - 23.25), sub-consciousness (mean rank - 11.00), and super-consciousness experiences (mean rank - 16.25).
Conclusion:
The practitioners of Heartfulness meditation, Vipassana, and Heart-based Dhyan (Ram Krishna Mission) demonstrated better outcomes compared to those practicing Raj Yog (Brahma Kumaris), TM (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi), and Osho meditation. PWB, as well as sub-conscious and superconscious states, were found to be significantly better among meditation practitioners than among non-practitioners.
Keywords
Kruskal–Wallis test
Meditation
Psychological well-being
Sub-consciousness
Super-consciousness
INTRODUCTION
Numerous studies indicate that meditation techniques can significantly enhance mental health. These techniques help reduce worry, anxiety, and emotional tension, promoting a sense of calm and inner peace.[1] In today’s fast-paced and stressful world, meditation is considered a natural method for achieving psychological balance and maintaining overall mental health.[2] This typical functioning of the mind is accessed through deep meditation, allowing individuals to go beyond their usual thoughts and enter a calm and focused sub-conscious state.[3] Through deep and consistent practice, practitioners may reach profound levels of awareness that transcend the sub-conscious.[4]
There are different ways to meditate, and each one may have a different effect on the heart, mind, and soul. Heartfulness meditation, for instance, focuses on the heart and helps with mental balance and inner calm.[1,2] Transcendental meditation (TM), requires repeating a mantra in thoughts, which helps to relax and become alert at the same time.[5] Osho meditation employs a combination of breathing techniques, movement, and stillness, alongside other dynamic methods, to assist individuals in releasing emotional blockages and enhancing self-awareness. Vipassana meditation, rooted in Buddhist teachings, emphasizes the observation of thoughts and bodily sensations without judgment, thereby fostering greater self-awareness and emotional regulation. The Brahma Kumaris promote a unique spiritual discipline known as Raj Yog Meditation, which aims to establish a connection with the supreme soul, facilitating inner peace, mental clarity, and profound wisdom. Heart-based Dhyan meditation, practiced at the Ram Krishna Mission, encourages spiritual and emotional purification by centering attention on the heart and nurturing devotion.
Worldwide, many people practice different types of meditation, such as Heartfulness meditation,[6-8] Osho meditation, Brahma Kumaris (Raj Yoga), Vipassana meditation, TM (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi), and heart-based Dhyan (Ram Krishna Mission). The few comparative studies available often lack a standardized approach to evaluating results, and they typically do not consider aspects of psychological well-being (PWB) or altered state of consciousness.[9]
Meditation and PWB
Lifestyle-related issues significantly impact both physical and mental health.[10] One can benefit from meditation, particularly when combined with yogic breathing techniques and a supportive environment.[11] Effective meditation can be beneficial for individuals with moderate neurosis or psychosomatic conditions.[12]
In India, regular meditation and yoga practice are considered essential for achieving holistic health. In recent years, these practices have gained global recognition, and in 2024, the United Nations General Assembly also declared December 21st as “World Meditation Day” to combat the challenges posed by today’s sedentary and stressful work environments.[12] Meditation offers numerous benefits, including fostering greater compassion and kindness, improving relationships, and enhancing sleep quality, all of which enrich daily life.[13,14] Meditation can improve cognitive abilities by enhancing self-awareness, promoting a cheerful outlook, and providing clarity in thinking.[15] Combining yoga with meditation enhances mental health and is beneficial for individuals facing physical health challenges.[16,17] Trataka, a form of yoga that includes meditation, can benefit in stress and anxiety, while also improving concentration and relieving bodily complaints, especially eye pain.[18,19] Meditation can strengthen the immune system and enhance defense mechanisms, potentially improving recovery from illness and contributing to a disease-free life. Meditation has proven useful for individuals pursuing education; insights from processing theory suggest that meditation operates on a deeper level, positively influencing the performance of both school children and college students by enhancing their physical and mental health.[19]
The benefits of meditation extend beyond lifestyle issues; it can also help individuals cope with the physical and mental trauma that may arise during a pandemic, such as COVID-19. These advantages, gained from regular meditation practice, can foster a more optimistic outlook on life.[20] The existing literature clearly demonstrates a significant connection between meditation and the mind–body relationship, which enhances both mental health and physical health. By exploring the efficacy of different meditation practices, we can unlock greater potential for improving health outcomes and enriching the lives of countless individuals, including those from rural backgrounds.[21]
Comparative studies of different meditation techniques
TM and a few other meditation practices claim to enhance individual well-being and contribute positively to the personality of the practitioners.[22] Research indicates that Heartfulness meditation helped students and teachers feel better about their own self-confidence.[23-25] Psychologists who incorporate awareness methods rooted in Buddhism believe that meditation can be beneficial to individuals in developing equanimity and a deep understanding of the nature of reality. Mindfulness meditation can help the immune system, but more research is needed to fully understand these benefits.[26] Meditation using the Vipassana technique has increased happiness in people’s lives, with similar growth rates observed for both males and females.[27] Research suggests there is no right or wrong way to meditate; the importance of meditation lies in its ability to reduce stress and improve overall well-being.[28]
Meditation and consciousness states (sub- and super-consciousness)
The Global Workspace Theory views consciousness as a “mental spotlight” that brings together information from different areas of the brain. When specific information enters this global workspace, it becomes accessible to our attention, memory, and decision-making processes. This shared space enables us to consciously experience, analyze, and respond to complex situations. Neuroimaging studies have shown that prolonged meditation practice is associated with increased cortical thickness and greater gray matter volume in brain areas related to attention, memory, and emotional regulation. Meditation has also been linked to altered states of consciousness, which can include subconsciousness and super-consciousness.[29,30] These studies collectively suggest a connection between meditation, brain function, and states of consciousness.
This interaction can be further explained through various theories of consciousness and thought models. For instance, dual-process theories propose that our brain operates through two systems: The first system runs automatically and quickly, managing routine tasks with minimal awareness. The second system is slower, more deliberate, and conscious, aiding us in making thoughtful decisions and reflecting on our actions. Regular and deep meditation can potentially influence both systems, which together shape human thinking and behavior.[31] Another approach to understanding states of consciousness and their relationship with meditation is the higher-order thoughts model. This model explains that consciousness arises when we have thoughts about our own thoughts. In other words, we not only experience something but also recognize that we are experiencing it. This ability to reflect on our mental states, which can be cultivated through meditation, fosters self-awareness and distinguishes conscious thought from mere perception or automatic processes.[32]
Gaps in literature and rationale for the present study
There is a significant gap in the literature concerning comparative studies of multiple meditation methods conducted within a unified research framework. This lack of comparative analyses makes it difficult to determine which techniques may be most effective for enhancing mental health, improving well-being, or accessing altered states of consciousness, such as sub- and super-consciousness. The purpose of this study is to investigate how various types of meditation, such as Heartfulness meditation,[33] Osho Meditation, Brahma Kumaris (Raj Yoga), Vipassana meditation, TM (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi), and heart-based Dhyan (Ram Krishna Mission) affect PWB, including mental health and experiences related to the subconsciousness and super-consciousness. The conceptual research model is as follows:
According to Figure 1, the grouping independent variable is the “Meditation Techniques” and the dependent test variables are the “Psychological well-being,” “Sub-consciousness,” and “Super-consciousness” conditions among human beings. The objectives of this study are as under:
- Conceptual model. Source: AMOS 23.0.
To compare the relationship of the meditation techniques towards the PWB, sub and super-consciousness conditions among the meditation practitioners.
The null hypotheses of this study are as follows:
H01: There is no significant relationship between meditation techniques and the PWB among meditation practitioners
H02: There is no significant relationship between meditation techniques and the subconscious conditions among meditation practitioners
H03: There is no significant relationship between meditation techniques and the super-consciousness conditions among meditation practitioners.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study design
The current study employed a cross-sectional comparative descriptive research design, which analyzes data from different groups at a single point in time. The aim was to describe and compare specific characteristics or outcomes related to how various types of meditation improve mental health, as well as levels of subconsciousness and super-consciousness among both practitioners and non-practitioners of meditation. There were no clinical interventions, such as electroencephalography (EEG) or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); instead, participants reported their own feelings after regularly practicing meditation.
Sampling method and size
A purposive sampling method was employed to select 405 participants who had been practicing one of six types of meditation for at least 6 months. The purposive sampling approach emphasizes that the sample was chosen to ensure participants with adequate meditation experience and awareness relevant to the study objectives. The types of meditation included Heartfulness Meditation, TM, Osho Meditation, Vipassana, Raj Yog Brahm Kumari, and Heart-Based Dhyan Ram Krishna Mission. In addition, the study recruited 14 participants who were non-practitioners of any meditation. Participants ranged in age from 25 to over 60 years. Individuals with diagnosed psychological disorders or those undergoing therapy were excluded to control for confounding effects. The data were collected from September 25, 2024–to November 14, 2024. A web-based structured questionnaire (Google form) was used to collect the primary data from the meditation practitioners of six meditation centers. These meditation centers are (1) Heartfulness meditation center at Shri Ram Chandra Mission, near IIM, Hardoi Bypass Road, Prabandh Nagar, (2) TM at Maharishi University campus, Sitapur Road, (3) Osho Meditation Centre at near Sherwood Management College, Indira Nagar, (4) Vipassana Centre on Bakshi ka Talab, (5) Brahma Kumaris Raj Yoga Meditation Centre at Janki Puram, and (6) Ramakrishna Mission Sevashrama in Nirala Nagar in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. The potential respondents were contacted through both offline and online mediums.
Recruitment process of the meditation practitioners
Participants for the study were recruited from meditation centers and wellness communities. To ensure ethical standards were met, all participants were required to sign an informed consent form before participating in the study. Participants were approached in person by visiting the meditation centers, as well as through online platforms such as social media and WhatsApp groups.
Assessment procedure and tools
The PWB of participants was measured using a 5-item Ryff ’s PWB scale, which originally consists of 42 items. A researcher-developed scale was used to assess participants’ perceived subconsciousness and super-consciousness experiences, which was validated through expert review and quantitative methods. The survey was primarily distributed to participants through existing WhatsApp groups associated with the meditation centers, and in some cases, social media was also utilized. Completion of the survey took approximately 20–30 minutes/participant. To facilitate data collection, the researcher joined the WhatsApp groups of the meditation centers.
Record keeping and confidentiality
A unique ID code was used to make all participant data anonymous, and the data were saved on a protected platform. The data could only be seen by the main investigator.
Operational definitions
PWB
PWB, which is defined as the state of optimal mental functioning and life satisfaction, was measured using a scale adapted from Ryff ’s dimensions of PWB.[34,35]
Sub-consciousness condition
The condition of sub-consciousness is defined as cognitive experiences and feelings that are not immediately in our focal awareness but can be accessed during meditation. Based on insights from existing literature on the dimensions of subconsciousness in the context of meditation, five items were identified, developed, empirically tested, and adapted to measure this condition in the current study.[36]
Super-consciousness condition
The super-consciousness condition is defined as a state of transcendental awareness, unity, and detachment from the ego, according to transpersonal psychology. The five items used to measure super-consciousness are based on insights from existing literature and follow a similar approach to the development of the subconsciousness construct.[37-39]
Pilot study and measurement of variables
Pilot research was carried out on an initial 40 sample size. The reliability test was performed using Cronbach’s alpha.
For Cronbach’s alpha to be considered acceptable, it must be equal to or >0.700. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test was performed to determine the adequacy of the sample size. A KMO value of 0.60 or above is the minimal criterion for attaining the best possible results. A KMO value of 0.848 is exceptional.
PWB was evaluated using the pre-validated 5-item Ryff PWB Scale (Ryff, 1989), which demonstrated high reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.911. The internal consistency of the author-developed 5-item exploratory scales measuring subconsciousness and super-consciousness states was found to be acceptable, with Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.925 and 0.933, respectively. As indicated in Table 1, the reliability and validity metrics, including Cronbach’s alpha, KMO, and percentage of variance values, were all excellent, confirming the suitability of the data for subsequent statistical analysis.
| Construct | Scale/tool used | No of items | Cronbach alpha | KMO | % of variance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Psychological well-being | Ryff, 1989 | 5 | 0.911 | 0.848 | 74.531 |
| Sub consciousness | Researcher-developed | 5 | 0.925 | 0.851 | 77.282 |
| Super consciousness | Researcher-developed | 5 | 0.933 | 0.769 | 80.795 |
KMO: Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin. Source: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 23.0
Statistical tools
To examine for normality, the one-sample Kolmogorov– Smirnov test was conducted on data related to PWB, along with subconsciousness and super-consciousness conditions. For the imbalance in group sizes, the comparison was conducted using the non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test, which is appropriate when the assumption of normality is not met. This test effectively handles unequal group distributions and provides a robust alternative to parametric tests, thereby maintaining the power and validity of statistical inference under such conditions.
Ethical considerations
The “Ethical Considerations” section addresses the importance of voluntary participation of individuals involved in the survey, as well as the necessity of obtaining informed consent for their participation in the study.
Additionally, the Declarations section at the end declares that the data collected is from healthy individuals who practice meditation, rather than from patients. Furthermore, it is reiterated in the “Declarations section” by declaring that informed consent has been obtained from all participants who voluntarily took part in the study. Participation was entirely voluntary, and strict measures were taken to ensure anonymity and confidentiality. The data collected were used exclusively for academic and research purposes. Participants had the right to withdraw from the study at any time without facing any consequences.
RESULTS
Normality test
According to the one-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov Test shown in Table 2, the significance values for PWB, subconsciousness, and super-consciousness are all (P = 0.000), which is <0.05. Thus, concluded that the data for PWB, subconsciousness, and super-consciousness were not normally distributed. Consequently, a non-parametric, Kruskal–Wallis test was appropriate for comparing different meditation techniques in relation to these variables.
| Descriptive and test statistics | Psychological well-being | Sub- conscious\ | Super- consciousness\ |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sample size | 419 | 419 | 419 |
| Normal parameters | |||
| Mean | 4.7695 | 4.6993 | 4.7561 |
| Standard deviation | 0.53760 | 0.60070 | 0.58332 |
| K-S statistic | 0.382 | 0.374 | 0.428 |
| Asymptotic Significance (2-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Source: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 23.0
Non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test
PWB
According to the Kruskal–Wallis test statistics, as shown in Table 3, the significance value (P = 0.000) is <0.05. Therefore, rejected the first null hypothesis. This indicated that there was a significant relationship between meditation techniques and PWB among individuals.
| Test statistics | Psychological well-being |
|---|---|
| Chi-square | 141.109 |
| df | 6 |
| Asymptotic significance | 0.000 |
Source: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 23.0
According to ranks shown in Table 4 and the ranks mean rank line in Figure 2, it is evident that the mean rank for PWB is as follows: Heart-based Dhyan Ram Krishna Mission has a mean rank of 269.50, Heartfulness Meditation has a mean rank of 248.15, Raj Yog Brahm Kumari has a mean rank of 219.75, and Vipassana has a mean rank of 211.14. Heart-Based Dhyan Ram Krishna Mission and Heartfulness Meditation are associated with the highest levels of PWB among meditation practitioners, with mean ranks of 269.50 and 248.15, respectively. In contrast, non-practitioners of meditation have a mean rank of only 23.25, indicating a significantly lower level of PWB compared to those who practice meditation.
| Construct | Meditation technique | Sample size | Mean rank |
|---|---|---|---|
| Psychological well-being | Heartfulness meditation | 119 | 248.15 |
| Transcendental meditation | 35 | 132.60 | |
| Osho meditation | 42 | 135.08 | |
| Vipassana | 98 | 211.14 | |
| Raj Yog Brahm Kumari | 56 | 219.75 | |
| Heart-based Dhyan Ram Krishna Mission | 55 | 269.50 | |
| Non-practitioner of Meditation | 14 | 23.25 | |
| Total | 419 |
Source: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 23.0
- Ranks mean rank line: Psychological well-being. Source: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 23.0.
Sub-consciousness
The Kruskal–Wallis test statistic in Table 5 shows a significance value of P = 0.000, which is <0.05. Therefore, rejected the second null hypothesis. This indicated that there was a significant relationship between meditation techniques and the subconscious condition in humans.
| Test statistics | Sub-consciousness |
|---|---|
| Chi-square | 107.337 |
| Degree of freedom | 6 |
| Asymptotic significance | 0.000 |
Source: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 23.0
According to the ranks shown in Table 6, and the ranks mean rank line in Figure 3, it is clear that the mean rank of sub-consciousness condition for heart-based Dhyan Ram Krishna Mission is 253.40, for Heartfulness meditation, it is 241.59, for Raj Yog Brahm Kumari, it is 224.56, and for Vipassana, it is 212.93. Therefore, it can be concluded that Heart-Based Dhyan Ram Krishna Mission and Heartfulness Meditation technique helped in achieving the maximum subconsciousness condition among the meditation practitioners. In contrast, the mean rank of sub-consciousness condition is 11.00 for the non-practitioners of meditation, which is a very low level of subconscious condition in comparison to practitioners of meditation techniques.
| Construct | Meditation technique | Sample size | Mean rank |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sub consciousness | Heartfulness meditation | 119 | 241.59 |
| Transcendental meditation | 35 | 132.60 | |
| Osho meditation | 42 | 168.25 | |
| Vipassana | 98 | 212.93 | |
| Raj Yog Brahm Kumari | 56 | 224.56 | |
| Heart-based Dhyan Ram Krishna Mission | 55 | 253.40 | |
| Non-practitioner of meditation | 14 | 11.00 | |
| Total | 419 |
Source: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 23.0
- Ranks mean rank line: Sub-consciousness. Source: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 23.0.
Super-consciousness
According to the Kruskal–Wallis Test Statistics presented in Table 7, the significance value (P = 0.000) is <0.05, hence rejected third null hypothesis. Therefore, it can be concluded that there was a significant relationship between meditation techniques and the super-consciousness condition in the human being.
| Test statistics | Super-consciousness |
|---|---|
| Chi-square | 136.202 |
| Degree of freedom | 6 |
| Asymptotic significance | 0.000 |
Source: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 23.0
According to the ranks shown in Table 8, and the ranks mean rank line in Figure 4, it is clear that the mean rank of super consciousness for heart-based Dhyan Ram Krishna Mission is 259.00, for Vipassana, it is 245.29, for Heartfulness meditation, it is 224.50, and for Raj Yog Brahm Kumari, it is 187.00. From these data, we can conclude that Heart-Based Dhyan Ram Krishna Mission and Vipassana meditation technique are associated with the highest levels of super-consciousness condition among meditation practitioners, with mean ranks of 259.00 and 245.29, respectively. In contrast, non-practitioners of meditation have a mean rank of only 16.25, indicating a significantly lower level of super-consciousness condition compared to those who practice meditation.
| Construct | Meditation technique | Sample size | Mean rank |
|---|---|---|---|
| Super consciousness experiences | Heartfulness meditation | 119 | 224.50 |
| Transcendental meditation | 35 | 127.00 | |
| Osho meditation | 42 | 186.83 | |
| Vipassana | 98 | 245.29 | |
| Raj Yog Brahm Kumari | 56 | 187.00 | |
| Heart-Based Dhyan Ram Krishna Mission | 55 | 259.00 | |
| Non-practitioner of meditation | 14 | 16.25 | |
| Total | 419 |
Source: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 23.0
- Ranks mean rank line: Super consciousness. Source: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 23.0.
DISCUSSION
This study examined the relationship between different meditation techniques and PWB, as well as states of subconsciousness and super-consciousness among both practitioners and non-practitioners of meditation.[40] The findings indicated a significant relationship between the various meditation methods and individuals’ PWB, subconsciousness, and super-consciousness conditions. The heart-based Dhyan from the Ram Krishna Mission, Heartfulness meditation, and Vipassana meditation techniques have been identified as particularly effective in promoting optimal PWB and enhancing subconscious and super-conscious awareness among practitioners. In contrast, non-practitioners of meditation reported considerably lower levels of PWB and sub-conscious and super-conscious conditions compared to regular meditation practitioners.[41]
The social and practical implications of this study are to raise awareness about the most effective meditation techniques for achieving optimal PWB, a heightened state of subconscious awareness, and a peak level of super consciousness among meditation practitioners. The nuances of urban living are now reaching into rural areas, compelling rural populations to confront lifestyle challenges that were previously the norm in cities.[42] This shift poses significant risks to the health and well-being of those in rural communities.[43] We must address these emerging challenges to ensure a healthier, more balanced way of life for everyone, regardless of where they reside. Access to medication in rural regions is often time-consuming and expensive. Given these circumstances, there is a pressing need for an affordable and easily adoptable method to assist rural communities in addressing these challenges. Meditation, being both simple to practice and cost-effective, has shown great promise. This study suggests that incorporating meditation-based treatments into rural mental health programs could be highly beneficial. It also indicates that meditation has the potential to enhance well-being and improve the health of practitioners, and these benefits could be extended to rural residents, making it a valuable resource for them.
CONCLUSION
Although numerous meditation techniques exist worldwide, this study focuses on six particular techniques that are relatively more popular than others.[44] The findings of this study should not diminish the credibility of other meditation techniques that were not examined here. Many of these methods assert their own advantages, including the cultivation of moral values and a wide range of benefits for PWB.
It is important to understand that the sub- and super-consciousness scales used for data collection in this study reflect perceived experiences rather than objectively measurable states. The data for this study were collected in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, and the surrounding regions with a limited sample size. Future research could concentrate on the rural population and involve a larger sample.
It would be beneficial to explore the relationship between any single meditation technique and PWB as well as the conditions of sub and super-consciousness. A pairwise comparison of the different meditation techniques could also provide insights into their similarities and differences. Employing a longitudinal design could help in studying the pre- and post-treatment effects, allowing for an understanding of the temporal effects of meditation on participants. Future researchers may also consider using neuroscientific methods, such as EEG and fMRI, to obtain clinical evidence regarding the effects of meditation on both urban and rural populations, which would help to validate and expand on these findings.
Ethical approval:
Institutional Review Board approval is not required because the current study employed a cross-sectional comparative descriptive research design, which analyzes data from different groups at a single point in time. The research/study complies with the Helsinki Declaration of 1964.
Declaration of participants consent:
The authors certify that they have obtained all appropriate participant consent forms. In the form, the participants have given their consent for their images and other clinical information to be reported in the journal. The participants understand that their names and initials will not be published and due efforts will be made to conceal their identity, but anonymity cannot be guaranteed.
Conflicts of interest:
The authors declare that they have no competing interests with any other party, including the individuals who assisted in data collection.
Use of artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology for manuscript preparation:
The authors confirm that they have not used artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technology for assisting in the writing or editing of the manuscript, and no images were manipulated using AI.
Financial support and sponsorship: No financial support is received from any agency to conduct this research.
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